Understanding the Biodiversity and Biological Applications of Endophytic Fungi: A Review

Yash Mishra^1*, Abhijeet Singh², Amla Batra² and Madan Mohan Sharma¹

¹Department of Biosciences, Manipal University Jaipur, PIN-303007, Rajasthan, India

²Lab. No. 5, Department of Botany, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, PIN-302055 Rajasthan, India

Keywords: Endophytes; Histological localization; Biodiversity and Colonization frequency; Biological roles

Introduction

Biodiversity of Endophytic Fungi

Endophytic fungi represent an important and quantified component of fungal biodiversity and are known to affects plant diversity [19]. Approximately, all vascular plant species established to harbor endophytic bacteria and/or fungi [20,21]. Moreover, the colonization of endophytes has already been recognized in marine algae [22,23] and mosses and ferns [24,25]. The environmental conditions in which the host is growing also affect the endophyte population [26]. In the present scenario, endophytes have been isolated from all groups of plants ranging from sea grasses [27], lichens [28], palms [29,30] to large trees [19,31]. Most endophytes isolated belong to ascomycetes & their anamorphs and basidiomycetes [32].

Certain mycorrhizae, e.g. ectendomycorrhizae, ericoid mycorrhizae and pseudomycorrhizae are indistinct [33] and some mutualistic mycorrhizal fungi associated with plants of Ericaceae and Orchidaceae family have been referred to as endophytes [34,35]. They are ubiquitous and occur in all known plants, including a broad range of host orders, families, genera and species, in ecosystems viz., shrubs [36], ferns [37], mosses [38], lichens [39], grasses [40,41] and deciduous and coniferous trees [42-45]. Several efforts have been made to estimate the total number of fungi on the basis of their association with plants [46]. The magnitude of fungal diversity estimated about 1.5 million (more accurately 1.62 million) species, later revised by [47] to 2.27 million. The figure provided by Hawksworth has been widely accepted by fungal experts (Table 1) [48]. However, the number of fungal species may vary because of availability of modern tools and techniques for identification of this diverse group of endophytic fungi.

Number of fungal species	Reference
2700000	[49]
1620000	[46]
1000000	[50]
1000000	[51]
1500000	[50]
9900000	[52]
1500000	[53]
2270000	[47]
500,000*	[54]
3,500,000-5,100,000*	[55]
712,000*	[56]
611,000 (± SE = 297,000)*	[57]

Table 1: Estimation of fungal species diversity. *some additional estimates.

The total biodiversity of fungal endophytes may be classified in to two major categories as Balansiaceous and non- Balansiaceous endophytes. Further, these categories divided in to four separate classes viz., class I-IV. Balansiaceous endophytes of grasses were first illustrated by European investigators in the late 19th century in seeds of different species of Lolium.

Class I include Clavicipitaceous endophytes and represent a small number of phylogenetically related Clavicipitaceous species that are fastidious in culture and restricted to some grasses [58,59]. However, transmission is primarily vertical with host plants pass through seed infections to the next plant [60]. The endophytes from class I frequently increase plant biomass, confer drought tolerance and produce chemicals that are toxic to animals and decrease herbivory [61].

Class II endophytes described as mycorrhizal fungus colonized in all parts of the plant including the seed coat and did not form intracellular mycorrhizal structures. These endophytes limited to a rare number of plants and comprises a diversity of fungal species belongs to Dikarya (Ascomycota or Basidiomycota). They have ability to confer habitat specific stress tolerance to host plants [62].

Class III endophytes are distinguished on the basis of their occurrence and horizontal transmission. This class includes endophytic fungi from vascular, nonvascular plants, woody and herbaceous angiosperms in tropical forest and antarctic communities. Single plant may harbor hundreds of different endophytic fungi [63-65]. ‘Mycelium Radicus Astrovirens (MRA)’ associated with terrestrial plant roots reported to have a brown to blackish, pigmented fungus [66].

Class IV endophytes have darkly melanized septa and restricted to plant roots. They are generally Ascomycetous fungi, which are conidial and form melanized structures like inter and intracellular hyphae and microsclerotia in the roots. This class of endophytes found in host plants like non mycorrhizal from antarctic, arctic, alpine, subalpine, temperate zones and tropical ecosystems [67,68].

Both the major groups of endophytic fungi (C, NC) may be identified as grass and non-grass host type based on their contrasting characteristics (Figure 1A-1B) (Table 2).

Endophytes of grass host Type	:	Endophytes of nongrass hosts Type
Few species, Clavicipitaceae	:	Many species, taxonomically diverse
Extensive internal colonization	:	Restricted to internal colonization
Occurring in several hosts	:	Species with limited host specificity
Systemic, seed transmitted	:	Nonsystemic, spore transmitted
Host colonized by only one species	:	Host infected by several species

Table 2: Characteristics of grass and non-grass host type endophytic fungi.

Figure 1: A-Balansiaceous Endophytic fungi; B-Non-Balansiaceous Endophytic fungi.

Histological Localization, Isolation and Pure Culture of Endophytic Fungi

Endophytic fungi grow within the healthy tissues of plants; hence at the time of histological localization and isolation fresh, wound free and disease free plant parts should be selected. Prior to isolation of endophytic fungi, explants are washed under running tap water followed by surface sterilization, which varies depending on the type of plant material and contaminants. The stem leaves (lateral and midrib) and roots were cut into segments (0.5-1.0 cm). The samples are surface sterilized by method of [68,69]. In case of roots and rhizomes, after washing under running tap water explants should be thoroughly washed using distilled water. These surface sterilized materials were further sterilized inside the laminar air flow cabinet with mercuric chloride (0.1%w/v), different concentrations of ethanol (50%, 70%, 90% and absolute) for few seconds to minutes i.e. 30 sec. to 1 min. and sodium hypochlorite (4%) for 2-3 minutes followed by rinsing with double distilled deionized sterile water to remove remnants of the sterilets and blot dried on sterile tissue paper. Since, endophytic fungi do not cause any disease symptoms in the host plants and their interaction involves metabolic exchange. Hence, their presence cannot be recognized externally. Consequently, the presence of endophytic fungi within healthy tissues of plants is usually recognized through culture methods. Meanwhile to culture the fungus, the tissue needs to be examined for the presence or absence of endophytic fungi and localization via anatomical studies. Many endophytic fungi develop within specific organs with small amounts of mycelium, making such direct observations difficult. However, these fungi can be isolated from healthy tissues [69].Various reports have been available, which revealed the presence of endophytic fungi from various plants viz.,Terminalia arjuna [70], Aegle marmelos [71], Azadirachta indica [72], Catharanthus roseus [73] and Stevia rebaudiana [74]. Explants should be stored at 4°C until isolation procedures begin. The sterilized explants were cultured in Petri dishes containing Potato Dextrose Agar Medium (PDA) supplemented with 100 μg/ml of streptomycin, Ampicillin and Chloramphenicol [75-79] sealed with parafilm, incubated at 27°C ± 2°C in digital incubator to promote the growth of mycelia, under controlled conditions followed by pure culture for identification. All operations for isolation of endophytic fungi must be carried out in aseptic condition [80-88]. The growth of the endophytic fungal colonies from the plant tissues were observed every day. These endophytes can be identified on the basis of their morphological characteristics of spores and mycelium, biochemical testing and molecular characterization. Further, for morphological identification various stains can be used to identify the isolated fungal endophytes at initial level (Table 3).The histological localization, isolation and pure culture of endophytic fungi are being done in medicinally important plant: Tinospora cordifolia in author’s laboratory. In natural conditions, disease free leaves of T. cordifolia (Figure 2A) after histological studies have shown the presence of endophytic fungi in intercellular and stomatal region (Figure 2B). After 4-5 days, in vivo leaf segments showed the emergence of endophytic fungi on PDA plates (Figure 2C). The isolated endophytic fungi cultured on separate PDA plates as pure culture (Figure 2D). The pure culture of endophytic fungi sent for identification to plant pathology laboratory IARI, New Delhi.

Stain	Plant species	Part	Reference
Toluidine blue O	Wheat (Erysiphe graminis f. sp.).	Leaves	[89]
Lactophenol cotton blue	Uromyces phaseoli var. vignae	Leaves	[90]
Lactophenol cotton blue and aniline blue	Triticum aestivum	Leaves	[91]
Trypan blue & Rose Bengal	Turf and Forage grasses	Leaves , stem	[92]
Safranin & fast green staining	Nassella neesiana (Weed) (Uromyces pencanus)	Leaves	[93]
Pianese III B Stain	Cassava	Leaves	[94-97]
Aniline blue	Ryegrass	-	[98]
Rhodamine B / Methyl green method	Acer pseudoplatanus	Plant wood	[99]
Chlorazole Black E	Eucalypt (AM Fungi)	Roots	[100]
KOH Aniline blue	Fungal species	Leaves, roots	[101]

Table 3: Various stains to localize endophytic fungi within plant tissues.

Figure 2: Study of Endophytic Fungi isolated from in vivo leaf of Tinospora cordifolia. A: In vivo leaves of Tinospora cordifolia, B: Histology of in vivo leaf to localize endophytic fungi, C: Endophytic fungi emerging from leaf explant, D: Pure culture of emerging endophytic fungi

Natural Products from Endophytic Fungi

The search for new drugs/pharmaceutical products from microbial origin have been started since the discovery of anticancer drug “Taxol” from Taxomyces andreanae in early 1990’s and Penicillin from Penicillium notatum by W. Flemming in 1928 [102]. Both these drugs were isolated from fungi. Initially, taxol was isolated from Taxus brevifolia followed by Taxus wallinchiana, which harbor endophytic fungi viz. Taxomyces andreanae and Pestalotiopsis microspore, respectively [103]. The discovery of these anticancer drug and antibiotic opened up new vistas to discover new drugs from biological origin. Since then, scientists have been searching an array of natural products from endophytes such as Micafungin, an antifungal agent from Coleophoma empetri [104], Rosuvastatin from Penicillium citrinum and P. brevicompactum, which are used for treating dyslipidemias [105], Mycophenolate from Penicillium brevicompactum, which is used for preventing renal transplant rejection [106]. The chemical structures of some of these natural products have been shown (Figure 3). Further, soil fungi have been the most studied and typical soil microbes viz. Acremonium, Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium have shown the ability to synthesis a diverse range of bioactive compounds. More than 30% of isolated metabolites from fungi are from Aspergillus and Penicillium [107]. Besides, 47% of total anticancer drugs and 52% of new chemicals introduced into the market are of natural origin [108- 110]. Further, many of these natural products and drugs have shown potent pharmaceutical applications against various diseases. However, crude extracts of plants have been directly used as drugs, which were of low cost and important source of traditional medicines. These natural products provided the basic chemical architecture to derive semi synthetic natural products [111]. The entry of dreaded disease AIDS, Cancer and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) disease needs the discovery and development of new drugs to combat them. A number of secondary metabolites have been produced in vitro and hence the triumph of bioprospecting from endophytes [112]. Endophytic fungal diversity and specialized habituation makes them an exciting field of study in the search for new medicines or novel drugs [113].

Figure 3: Chemical structures of some natural products isolated from fungi.

Biological Roles of Endophytic Fungi

Colonization Frequency

Colonization frequency percentage and the dominant fungi percentage of the endophytic fungi was calculated using the method [184]. The endophytic fungal isolates from each host plant tissue segment were analyzed based on the percentage of density of colonization [197]. The Relative Percentage Occurrence (RPO) of different groups of fungi and percentage of Endophytic Infection Rate (EIR) can be analyzed (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Mechanism of Plant growth Promotion.

Colonization frequency

CF (%)=[Number of species isolated/Number of segments screened]*100

Relative Percentage Occurrence (RPO) of different groups of Fungi

RPO=[Density of colonization of one group/Total Density of colonization]×100

Endophytic Infection Rates (EIR %)

EIR (%)=[Number of infected segments/Total number of segments screened]×100

Conclusion

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